Python has a lot of GUI frameworks, but Tkinter is the only framework that’s built into the Python standard library. Tkinter has several strengths. It’s cross-platform, so the same code works on Windows, macOS, and Linux. Visual elements are rendered using native operating system elements, so applications built with Tkinter look like they belong on the platform where they’re run. Show
Although Tkinter is considered the de facto Python GUI framework, it’s not without criticism. One notable criticism is that GUIs built with Tkinter look outdated. If you want a shiny, modern interface, then Tkinter may not be what you’re looking for. However, Tkinter is lightweight and relatively painless to use compared to other frameworks. This makes it a compelling choice for building GUI applications in Python, especially for applications where a modern sheen is unnecessary, and the top priority is to quickly build something that’s functional and cross-platform. In this tutorial, you’ll learn how to:
Note: This tutorial is adapted from the chapter “Graphical User Interfaces” of Python Basics: A Practical Introduction to Python 3. The book uses Python’s built-in IDLE editor to create and edit Python files and interact with the Python shell. In this tutorial, references to IDLE have been removed in favor of more general language. The bulk of the material in this tutorial has been left unchanged, and you should have no problems running the example code from the editor and environment of your choice. Once you’ve mastered these skills by working through the exercises at the end of each section, you’ll tie everything together by building two applications. The first is a temperature converter, and the second is a text editor. It’s time to dive right in and learn how to build an application with Tkinter! Free Bonus: 5 Thoughts On Python Mastery, a free course for Python developers that shows you the roadmap and the mindset you’ll need to take your Python skills to the next level. Take the Quiz: Test your knowledge with our interactive “Python GUI Programming With Tkinter” quiz. Upon completion you will receive a score so you can track your learning progress over time: Take the Quiz » Building Your First Python GUI Application With TkinterThe foundational element of a Tkinter GUI is the window. Windows are the containers in which all other GUI elements live. These other GUI elements, such as text boxes, labels, and buttons, are known as widgets. Widgets are contained inside of windows. First, create a window that contains a single widget. Start up a new session and follow along! Note: The code examples in this tutorial have all been tested on Windows, macOS, and Ubuntu Linux 20.04 with Python version 3.10. If you’ve installed Python with the official installers available for Windows and macOS from python.org, then you should have no problem running the sample code. You can safely skip the rest of this note and continue with the tutorial! If you haven’t installed Python with the official installers, or there’s no official distribution for your system, then here are some tips for getting up and going. Python on macOS with Homebrew: The Python distribution for macOS available on Homebrew doesn’t come bundled with the Tcl/Tk dependency required by Tkinter. The default system version is used instead. This version may be outdated and prevent you from importing the Tkinter module. To avoid this problem, use the official macOS installer. Ubuntu Linux 20.04: To conserve memory space, the default version of the Python interpreter that comes pre-installed on Ubuntu Linux 20.04 has no support for Tkinter. However, if you want to continue using the Python interpreter bundled with your operating system, then install the following package: This installs the Python GUI Tkinter module. Other Linux Flavors: If you’re unable to get a working Python installation on your flavor of Linux, then you can build Python with the correct version of Tcl/Tk from the source code. For a step-by-step walk-through of this process, check out the . You may also try using pyenv to manage multiple Python versions. With your Python shell open, the first thing you need to do is import the Python GUI Tkinter module: >>> A window is an instance of Tkinter’s >>> When you execute the above code, a new window pops up on your screen. How it looks depends on your operating system:  Throughout the rest of this tutorial, you’ll see Windows screenshots. Remove adsAdding a WidgetNow that you have a window, you can add a widget. Use the >>> The window you created earlier doesn’t change. You just created a >>> The window now looks like this: When you pack a widget into a window, Tkinter sizes the window as small as it can be while still fully encompassing the widget. Now execute the following: >>> Nothing seems to happen, but notice that no new prompt appears in the shell. Warning: When you work with Tkinter from a Python REPL, updates to windows are applied as each line is executed. This is not the case when a Tkinter program is executed from a Python file! If you don’t include Creating a window with Tkinter only takes a couple of lines of code. But blank windows aren’t very useful! In the next section, you’ll learn about some of the widgets available in Tkinter, and how you can customize them to meet your application’s needs. Check Your UnderstandingExpand the code blocks below to check your understanding: Exercise: Create a Tkinter windowShow/Hide Write a full Python script that creates a Tkinter window with the text The window should look like this: Try this exercise now. You can expand the code block below to see a solution: Solution: Create a Tkinter windowShow/Hide Here’s one possible solution: Keep in mind your code may look different. When you’re ready, you can move on to the next section. Working With WidgetsWidgets are the bread and butter of the Python GUI framework Tkinter. They’re the elements through which users interact with your program. Each widget in Tkinter is defined by a class. Here are some of the widgets available: Widget ClassDescription You’ll see how to work with each of these in the following sections, but keep in mind that Tkinter has many more widgets than those listed here. The widget’s choice gets even more complicated when you account for a whole new set of themed widgets. In the remaining part of this tutorial, you’re only going to use Tkinter’s classic widgets, though. If you’d like to learn more about the two widget types, then you can expand the collapsible section below: Classic vs Themed WidgetsShow/Hide It’s worth noting that there are currently two broad categories of widgets in Tkinter:
Tkinter’s classic widgets are highly customizable and straightforward, but they tend to appear dated or somewhat foreign on most platforms today. If you’d like to take advantage of widgets with a native look and feel familiar to users of a given operating system, then you might want to check out the themed widgets. Most of the themed widgets are near drop-in replacements for their legacy counterparts, but with a more modern look. You can also use a few brand-new widgets, such as the , which weren’t available in Tkinter before. At the same time, you’ll need to continue using some of the classic widgets that don’t have a themed alternative. Note: Themed widgets in the Making the new widgets themable meant extracting most of their style information into separate objects. On the one hand, such a separation of concerns is a desired property in the library’s design, but on the other hand, it introduces an additional abstraction layer, which makes themed widgets more difficult to style than the classic ones. When working with regular and themed widgets in Tkinter, it’s customary to declare the following aliases for the Tkinter packages and modules: >>> Aliases like this let you explicitly refer to either >>> However, you may sometimes find it more convenient to use a wildcard import ( >>> Now, you don’t have to prefix the widget’s class name with its corresponding Python module. You’ll always create a themed widget as long as it’s available, or you’ll fall back to the classic widget otherwise. The two import statements above must be placed in the specified order to have an effect. Because of that, wildcard imports are considered a bad practice, which should generally be avoided unless used consciously. For a full list of Tkinter widgets, check out Basic Widgets and More Widgets in the TkDocs tutorial. Even though it describes themed widgets introduced in Tcl/Tk 8.5, most of the information there should also apply to the classic widgets. Fun Fact: Tkinter literally stands for “Tk interface” because it’s a Python binding or a programming interface to the Tk library in the Tcl scripting language. For now, take a closer look at the Displaying Text and Images With >>> import tkinter as tk 05 WidgetsYou can control There are numerous valid color names, including:
Many of the HTML color names work with Tkinter. For a full reference, including macOS- and Windows-specific system colors that the current system theme controls, check out the colors manual page. You can also specify a color using : This sets the label background to a nice, light blue color. Hexadecimal RGB values are more cryptic than named colors, but they’re also more flexible. Fortunately, there are tools available that make getting hexadecimal color codes relatively painless. If you don’t feel like typing out You can also control the width and height of a label with the Here’s what this label looks like in a window: It may seem strange that the label in the window isn’t square even though the width and height are both set to Note: For width and height measurements, Tkinter uses text units, instead of something like inches, centimeters, or pixels, to ensure consistent behavior of the application across platforms. Measuring units by the width of a character means that the size of a widget is relative to the default font on a user’s machine. This ensures the text fits properly in labels and buttons, no matter where the application is running. Labels are great for displaying some text, but they don’t help you get input from a user. The next three widgets that you’ll learn about are all used to get user input. Remove adsDisplaying Clickable Buttons With >>> import tkinter as tk 16 WidgetsThere are many similarities between Here’s what the button looks like in a window: Pretty nifty! You can use the next two widgets to collect text input from a user. Getting User Input With >>> import tkinter as tk 17 WidgetsWhen you need to get a little bit of text from a user, like a name or an email address, use an The interesting bit about
The best way to get an understanding of >>> Now create a >>> The >>> Here’s what that looks like: Notice that Tkinter automatically centers the label above the Click inside the Now you’ve got some text entered into the >>> You can delete text as well. This >>> The text remaining in the widget is now Note that, just like Python string objects, text in an If you need to remove several characters from an >>> The remaining text now reads >>> You’ll now see a blank text box: On the opposite end of the spectrum, you can also insert text into an >>> The window now looks like this: The first argument tells If >>> The widget text now reads Getting Multiline User Input With >>> import tkinter as tk 18 Widgets
Although the method names are the same as the Note: Do you still have the window from the previous section open? If so, then you can close it by executing the following: >>> You can also close it manually by clicking the Close button. In your Python shell, create a new blank window and pack a >>> Text boxes are much larger than Click anywhere inside the window to activate the text box. Type in the word Just like with >>>
Line numbers start with Use the index >>> There are five letters in the word So, to get the word >>> To get the word >>> To get all of the text in a text box, set the starting index in >>> Notice that text returned by
Using the single-argument version, you pass to >>> The first line of text in the window now reads With the two-argument version, you pass two indices to delete a range of characters starting at the first index and up to, but not including, the second index. For example, to delete the remaining >>> Notice that the text is gone from the first line. This leaves a blank line followed the word Even though you can’t see it, there’s still a character on the first line. It’s a newline character! You can verify this using >>> If you delete that character, then the rest of the contents of the text box will shift up a line: >>> Now, Try to clear out the rest of the text in the text box. Set >>> The text box is now empty: You can insert text into a text box using >>> This inserts the word Check out what happens if you try to insert the word >>> Instead of inserting the text on the second line, the text is inserted at the end of the first line: If you want to insert text onto a new line, then you need to insert a newline character manually into the string being inserted: >>> Now
It’s usually impractical to try and keep track of what the index of the last character is. The best way to insert text at the end of a >>> Don’t forget to include the newline character ( >>> Assigning Widgets to Frames With >>> import tkinter as tk 19 WidgetsIn this tutorial, you’re going to work with only five widgets:
These are the four you’ve seen so far plus the Before you get into the details about laying out the visual presentation of your widgets, take a closer look at how An empty To get a feel for how this works, write a script that creates two Note that Now see what happens when you swap the order of The output looks like this: Now All four of the widget types that you’ve learned about— Note: If you omit the In addition to grouping your widgets logically, Adjusting Frame Appearance With Reliefs
To apply the border effect, you must set the Here’s a breakdown of this script:
The window produced by the above script looks like this: In this image, you can see the following effects:
These effects give your Python GUI Tkinter application a bit of visual appeal. Understanding Widget Naming ConventionsWhen you create a widget, you can give it any name you like, as long as it’s a valid Python identifier. It’s usually a good idea to include the name of the widget class in the variable name that you assign to the widget instance. For example, if a Note: Sometimes, you may define a new widget without assigning it to a variable. You’ll call its >>> This might be helpful when you don’t intend to refer to the widget’s instance later on. Due to automatic memory management, Python would normally such unassigned objects, but Tkinter prevents that by registering every new widget internally. When you include the widget class name in the variable name, you help yourself and anyone else who needs to read your code to understand what type of widget the variable name refers to. However, using the full name of the widget class can lead to long variable names, so you may want to adopt a shorthand for referring to each widget type. For the rest of this tutorial, you’ll use the following shorthand prefixes to name widgets: Widget ClassVariable Name PrefixExample In this section, you learned how to create a window, use widgets, and work with frames. At this point, you can make some plain windows that display messages, but you’ve yet to create a full-blown application. In the next section, you’ll learn how to control the layout of your applications using Tkinter’s powerful geometry managers. Check Your UnderstandingExpand the code block below for an exercise to check your understanding: Exercise: Create an Entry widget and insert some textShow/Hide Write a complete script that displays an The output window should look like this: Try this exercise now. You can expand the code block below to see a solution: Solution: Create an Entry widget and insert some textShow/Hide There are a couple of ways to solve this exercise. Here’s one solution that uses the This solution is great because it explicitly sets the background and foreground colors for the On most systems, the default background color for an Keep in mind your code may look different. When you’re ready, you can move on to the next section. Remove adsControlling Layout With Geometry ManagersUp until now, you’ve been adding widgets to windows and
Each window or The >>> import tkinter as tk 10 Geometry ManagerThe
Each There are three invisible parcels, each containing one of the three Notice that the The window produced by this script looks like this: One of the nice things about filling the window with Notice, though, that the The
If you don’t set This time, you have to specify the The resulting window looks like this: Just like when you set To make the layout truly responsive, you can set an initial size for your frames using the When you run the above script, you’ll see a window that initially looks the same as the one you generated in the previous example. The difference is that now you can resize the window however you want, and the frames will expand and fill the window responsively: Pretty cool! Remove adsThe >>> greeting = tk.Label(text="Hello, Tkinter") 97 Geometry ManagerYou can use Keep in mind that the origin, where Here’s an example of how the Here’s how this code works:
Here’s the window that the code produces: Note that if you run this code on a different operating system that uses different font sizes and styles, then the second label might become partially obscured by the window’s edge. That’s why
One of the main challenges of cross-platform GUI development is making layouts that look good no matter which platform they’re viewed on, and That’s not to say you should never use The >>> greeting = tk.Label(text="Hello, Tkinter") 98 Geometry ManagerThe geometry manager you’ll likely use most often is The following script creates a 3 × 3 grid of frames with Here’s what the resulting window looks like: You’re using two geometry managers in this example. Each frame is attached to Each The important thing to realize here is that even though The frames in the previous example are placed tightly next to one another. To add some space around each frame, you can set the padding of each cell in the grid. Padding is just some blank space that surrounds a widget and visually sets its content apart. The two types of padding are external and internal padding. External padding adds some space around the outside of a grid cell. It’s controlled with two keyword arguments to
Both Here’s the resulting window: The extra padding around the That looks pretty nice! But if you try and expand the window in any direction, then you’ll notice that the layout isn’t very responsive: The whole grid stays at the top-left corner as the window expands. By using
On each iteration of the loop, the The result is a grid layout that expands and contracts smoothly as the window is resized: Try it yourself to get a feel for how it works! Play around with the By default, widgets are centered in their grid cells. For example, the following code creates two Each grid cell is You can change the location of each label inside of the grid cell using the
The letters Here’s the output: You can combine multiple letters in a single string to position each label in the corner of its grid cell: In this example, the When a widget is positioned with Here’s what the output looks like: What the above example illustrates is that the Note: Now that you’ve got the fundamentals of geometry managers down for the Python GUI framework Tkinter, the next step is to assign actions to buttons to bring your applications to life. Remove adsCheck Your UnderstandingExpand the code block below for an exercise to check your understanding: Exercise: Create an address entry formShow/Hide Below is an image of an address entry form made with Tkinter: Write a complete script that re-creates the window. You may use any geometry manager you like. You can expand the code block below to see a solution: Solution: Create an address entry formShow/Hide There are many different ways to solve this exercise. If your solution generates a window identical to the one in the exercise statement, then congratulations! You’ve successfully solved the exercise! Below, you can look at two solutions that use the One solution creates a There’s nothing wrong with this solution. It’s a bit long, but everything is very explicit. If you want to change something, then it’s clear to see exactly where to do so. That said, the solution can be considerably shortened by recognizing that each In this solution, a is used to store the strings for each label in the form. They’re stored in the order that each form field should appear. Then, When you’re ready, you can move on to the next section. Making Your Applications InteractiveBy now, you have a pretty good idea of how to create a window with Tkinter, add some widgets, and control the application layout. That’s great, but applications shouldn’t just look good—they actually need to do something! In this section, you’ll learn how to bring your applications to life by performing actions whenever certain events occur. Using Events and Event HandlersWhen you create a Tkinter application, you must call The event loop is provided for you with Tkinter, so you don’t have to write any code that checks for events yourself. However, you do have to write the code that will be executed in response to an event. In Tkinter, you write functions called event handlers for the events that you use in your application. Note: An event is any action that occurs during the event loop that might trigger some behavior in the application, such as when a key or mouse button is pressed. When an event occurs, an event object is emitted, which means that an instance of a class representing the event is created. You don’t need to worry about instantiating these classes yourself. Tkinter will create instances of event classes for you automatically. You’ll write your own event loop in order to better understand how Tkinter’s event loop works. That way, you can see how Tkinter’s event loop fits into your application, and which parts you need to write yourself. Assume there’s a list called Right now, the event loop that you’ve created doesn’t do anything with Assume that When you call
Update your event loop to use Using import tkinter as tk window = tk.Tk() label = tk.Label(text="Python rocks!") label.pack() window.mainloop() 21To call an event handler whenever an event occurs on a widget, use Here, the Note: The output of the above program is not printed in the Tkinter application window. It’s printed to the . If you run the program in IDLE, then you’ll see the output in the interactive window. If you run the program from a terminal, then you should see the output in your terminal.
The event handler is bound to the widget on which In the example above, the event handler is bound to the window itself, but you can bind an event handler to any widget in your application. For example, you can bind an event handler to a In this example, the Note: For a list of commonly used events, see the Event types section of the Tkinter 8.5 reference. You can bind any event handler to any kind of widget with Using import tkinter as tk window = tk.Tk() label = tk.Label(text="Python rocks!") label.pack() window.mainloop() 42Every Take a look at an example. First, you’ll create a window with a The window looks like this: With the app layout defined, you can bring it to life by giving the buttons some commands. Start with the left button. When this button is pressed, it should decrease the value in the label by one. In order to do this, you first need to get answers to two questions:
Now that you know how to get and set a label’s text, write an You’ll also need Put To connect the buttons to the functions, assign the function to the button’s That’s all you need to do to bind the buttons to Here’s the full application code for your reference: Counter Application Full Source CodeShow/Hide This app isn’t particularly useful, but the skills you learned here apply to every app you’ll make:
In the next two sections, you’ll build more useful apps. First, you’ll build a temperature converter that converts a temperature value from Fahrenheit to Celsius. After that, you’ll build a text editor that can open, edit, and save text files! Check Your UnderstandingExpand the code block below for an exercise to check your understanding: Exercise: Simulate rolling a six-sided dieShow/Hide Write a program that simulates rolling a six-sided die. There should be one button with the text Hint: You can generate a random number using The application window should look something like this: Try this exercise now. You can expand the code block below to see a solution: Solution: Simulate rolling a six-sided dieShow/Hide Here’s one possible solution: Keep in mind that your code may look different. When you’re ready, you can move on to the next section. Building a Temperature Converter (Example App)In this section, you’ll build a temperature converter application that allows the user to input temperature in degrees Fahrenheit and push a button to convert that temperature to degrees Celsius. You’ll walk through the code step by step. You can also find the full source code at the end of this section for your reference. Note: To get the most out of this section, follow along in a Python shell. Before you start coding, you’ll first design the app. You need three elements:
You can arrange these in a grid with a single row and one column for each widget. That gets you a minimally working application, but it isn’t very user-friendly. Everything needs to have labels. You’ll put a label directly to the right of the You can give Now that you know what widgets you need and what the window is going to look like, you can start coding it up! First, import The user will enter the Fahrenheit value in You want You’ve set the Now, make the Like Finally, run the application: That looks great! But the button doesn’t do anything just yet. At the top of your script file, just below the This function reads the value from Now go down to the line where you define That’s it! You’ve created a fully functional temperature converter app in just twenty-six lines of code! Pretty cool, right? You can expand the code block below to see the full script: Temperature Converter Full Source CodeShow/Hide Here’s the full script for your reference: It’s time to kick things up a notch! Read on to learn how to build a text editor. Building a Text Editor (Example App)In this section, you’ll build a text editor application that can create, open, edit, and save text files. There are three essential elements in the application:
The three widgets will be arranged so that the two buttons are on the left-hand side of the window, and the text box is on the right-hand side. The whole window should have a minimum height of 800 pixels, and Here’s a sketch of how the window will look: You can achieve the desired layout using the
To set the minimum sizes for the window and In order to get both buttons into the same column, you’ll need to create a Now that you have a plan, you can start coding the application. The first step is to create all of the widgets you need: Here’s a breakdown of this code:
Take a look at line 6 more closely. The The first argument is Let’s also take a closer look at line 7. Here, you use Remember, row and column indices are zero-based, so these settings apply only to the second column. By configuring just the second column, the text box will expand and contract naturally when the window is resized, while the column containing the buttons will remain at a fixed width. Now you can work on the application layout. First, assign the two buttons to the These two lines of code create a grid with two rows and one column in the Both You place five pixels of padding around each button by setting the Now that These two lines of code create a grid with one row and two columns for The Now that the application layout is complete, add The following window is displayed: That looks great! But it doesn’t do anything just yet, so you need to start writing the commands for the buttons. Here’s a breakdown of this function:
Now you can update the program so that Next, set the Save the file and run it to check that everything is working. Then try opening a text file! With Here’s how this code works:
Now you can update the program so that Finally, set the Save the file and run it. You’ve now got a minimal yet fully functional text editor! You can expand the code block below to see the full script: Text Editor Application Full Source CodeShow/Hide Here’s the full script for your reference: You’ve now built two GUI applications in Python and applied many of the skills that you’ve learned throughout this tutorial. That’s no small achievement, so take some time to feel good about what you’ve done. You’re now ready to tackle some applications on your own! ConclusionIn this tutorial, you learned how to get started with Python GUI programming. Tkinter is a compelling choice for a Python GUI framework because it’s built into the Python standard library, and it’s relatively painless to make applications with this framework. Throughout this tutorial, you’ve learned several important Tkinter concepts:
Now that you’ve mastered the foundations of Python GUI programming with Tkinter, the next step is to build some of your own applications. What will you create? Share your fun projects down in the comments below! Additional ResourcesIn this tutorial, you touched on just the foundations of creating Python GUI applications with Tkinter. There are a number of additional topics that aren’t covered here. In this section, you’ll find some of the best resources available to help you continue on your journey. Tkinter References Here are some official resources to check out:
Additional Widgets In this tutorial, you learned about the
Application Distribution Once you’ve created an application with Tkinter, you probably want to distribute it to your colleagues and friends. Here are some tutorials to get you going with that process:
Other GUI Frameworks Tkinter isn’t your only choice for a Python GUI framework. If Tkinter doesn’t meet the needs of your project, then here are some other frameworks to consider:
Take the Quiz: Test your knowledge with our interactive “Python GUI Programming With Tkinter” quiz. Upon completion you will receive a score so you can track your learning progress over time: Take the Quiz » Mark as Completed 🐍 Python Tricks 💌 Get a short & sweet Python Trick delivered to your inbox every couple of days. No spam ever. Unsubscribe any time. Curated by the Real Python team. Send Me Python Tricks » About David Amos David is a writer, programmer, and mathematician passionate about exploring mathematics through code. » More about DavidEach tutorial at Real Python is created by a team of developers so that it meets our high quality standards. The team members who worked on this tutorial are: Aldren Bartosz Geir Arne Jaya Joanna Kate Master Real-World Python Skills With Unlimited Access to Real Python Join us and get access to thousands of tutorials, hands-on video courses, and a community of expert Pythonistas: Level Up Your Python Skills » Master Real-World Python Skills Join us and get access to thousands of tutorials, hands-on video courses, and a community of expert Pythonistas: Level Up Your Python Skills » What Do You Think? Rate this article: Tweet Share Share EmailWhat’s your #1 takeaway or favorite thing you learned? How are you going to put your newfound skills to use? Leave a comment below and let us know. Commenting Tips: The most useful comments are those written with the goal of learning from or helping out other students. and get answers to common questions in our support portal. Apa itu Python GUI?Tkinter adalah graphic user interface (GUI) standar python digunakan untuk membuat tampilan aplikasi dengan komponen-komponen yang ada di modul tkinter seperti Button, Textbox, Label, Frame, Window yang mana sangat mendukung dalam penciptaan aplikasi GUI .
Apakah Python bisa membuat aplikasi desktop?Python adalah bahasa pemrograman multi-platform yang bersifat free dan open-source, dan dapat digunakan untuk mengembangkan aplikasi aplikasi desktop maupun web. Python memiliki pustaka standar (Python Standard Library) yang sangat lengkap sehingga dapat memenuhi berbagai macam permasalahan-permasalahan riil di dalam ...
Aplikasi apa yang bisa dibangun dengan Python?Sebagai bahasa pemrograman favorit, Python memiliki banyak kegunaan. Bahasa pemrograman ini digunakan untuk berbagai kepentingan, mulai dari pembuatan game offline dan online, maintenance website, machine learning, sampai aplikasi media sosial.
Apakah bisa membuat aplikasi Android dengan Python?Anda beruntung, bahasa Python telah bisa digunakan untuk membuat aplikasi Android, iOS atau framework lainnya. Paket yang digunakan adalah Kivy.
|
Cara menggunakan python gui builder
Pos Terkait
Copyright © 2024 apacode Inc.
